Presidents and the Press
The BBC reports invents at the 19th Communist Party Congress in China which will 'elect' a handful of people (all men) to help President Xi Jinping run a country of 1.3 billion people.
In practice these individuals are are and picked by President Xi behind the scenes as he tightens his grip on power to become, arguably, the most influential Chinese leader since the days of Mao Zedong.
The state-run Chinese media report only what President Xi wants his people to hear which must be music to the ears of Donald Trump who is always whining about his coverage in the American press.
Charting China's 'great purge' under Xi
BBC China
Image copyright - AFP Image caption - Not since the days of Mao Zedong (right) has a campaign on the scale of Mr Xi's been seen
Since becoming China's leader in 2012, Xi Jinping has overseen a vast and ruthless anti-corruption drive in which more than a million officials have been disciplined.
A BBC study has found that more than 170 ministers and deputy minister-level officials have been sacked and many jailed under Mr Xi, accused of charges such as corruption, misconduct and violation of party discipline.
It has been described by some as a massive internal purge of opponents, on a scale not seen since the days of Mao Zedong, in whose Cultural Revolution many top officials were purged.
How extensive is the campaign?
The most noticeable departure from tradition has been the breaking with many unwritten party conventions since Mao's time. The prosecution of so many national-level officials has been notable - in recent decades prominent figures would usually have been quietly retired.
But in the last five years, 35 members (full and alternate) of the Chinese Communist party's most powerful body, the Central Committee, have been disciplined. That is as many as in all the years between 1949 and 2012.
Since becoming China's leader in 2012, Xi Jinping has overseen a vast and ruthless anti-corruption drive in which more than a million officials have been disciplined.
A BBC study has found that more than 170 ministers and deputy minister-level officials have been sacked and many jailed under Mr Xi, accused of charges such as corruption, misconduct and violation of party discipline.
It has been described by some as a massive internal purge of opponents, on a scale not seen since the days of Mao Zedong, in whose Cultural Revolution many top officials were purged.
How extensive is the campaign?
The most noticeable departure from tradition has been the breaking with many unwritten party conventions since Mao's time. The prosecution of so many national-level officials has been notable - in recent decades prominent figures would usually have been quietly retired.
But in the last five years, 35 members (full and alternate) of the Chinese Communist party's most powerful body, the Central Committee, have been disciplined. That is as many as in all the years between 1949 and 2012.
Who has been targeted?
Based on official data, a staggering 1.34 million officials at high and low levels - the so-called "tigers and flies" - have been brought down by corruption and disciplinary charges during President Xi's first five years in office.
No walk of life has been spared - those felled range from village chiefs and factory managers to government ministers and generals.
The so-called "great purge" goes right to the very top of government - the biggest scalp so far was once the third most senior leader in China, Zhou Yongkang. He had been in charge of the vast internal security apparatus until he retired.
Sun Zhengcai, who was sacked as Chongqing party secretary, was only the fourth sitting politburo member ever to be expelled from the Communist Party. Promoted before Xi Jinping took office, Mr Sun, 54, was the politburo's youngest member and had been tipped for the very top.
An unwritten party rule currently sets the retirement age at 68.
The Thoughts of Chairman Xi
How China's Communist Party picks leaders
The rising stars of China's Communist Party
Based on official data, a staggering 1.34 million officials at high and low levels - the so-called "tigers and flies" - have been brought down by corruption and disciplinary charges during President Xi's first five years in office.
No walk of life has been spared - those felled range from village chiefs and factory managers to government ministers and generals.
The so-called "great purge" goes right to the very top of government - the biggest scalp so far was once the third most senior leader in China, Zhou Yongkang. He had been in charge of the vast internal security apparatus until he retired.
Sun Zhengcai, who was sacked as Chongqing party secretary, was only the fourth sitting politburo member ever to be expelled from the Communist Party. Promoted before Xi Jinping took office, Mr Sun, 54, was the politburo's youngest member and had been tipped for the very top.
- Zhou Yongkang is the most senior official felled so far. Until he retired in 2012 he was the third most powerful politician in China. In 2015 he was jailed for life for bribery, abuse of power and disclosing state secrets.
- Abruptly removed from his post in July, Sun Zhengcai is the most senior serving official to be caught by President Xi's purge. Only the fourth sitting politburo member to ever be expelled from the Party.
- Xu Caihou was among highest-ranking military until he retired in 2013. He was investigated as part of a "cash for ranks" probe and ultimately expelled from the party and prosecuted. He died of cancer in 2015.
- Guo Boxiong served alongside Xu. In July 2016 he became the highest-ranking military official prosecuted since the end of the revolution in 1949. He was sentenced to life in prison for bribery.
- Ling Jihua was a trusted adviser of Hu Jintao but was swiftly demoted under Xi. After a scandal that began when his son died "in a state of undress" in a Ferrari crash, he was jailed for life for bribery in 2016.
An unwritten party rule currently sets the retirement age at 68.
The Thoughts of Chairman Xi
How China's Communist Party picks leaders
The rising stars of China's Communist Party
Has the army been spared?
No area has been more radically restructured under President Xi than the military, which he swiftly set about comprehensively reorganising and modernising.
No area has been more radically restructured under President Xi than the military, which he swiftly set about comprehensively reorganising and modernising.
Image copyright - REUTERS
More than 60 generals have been investigated and sacked in the drive to introduce a Western-style joint command and promote young officers to top positions.
Even as the delegates started to gather in Beijing for the current party congress, the pace of the campaign showed no signs of slowing down. Two top generals, Fang Fenghui and Zhang Yang, disappeared from public view as recently as last month, and a series of new high-level investigations have been announced.
More than 60 generals have been investigated and sacked in the drive to introduce a Western-style joint command and promote young officers to top positions.
Even as the delegates started to gather in Beijing for the current party congress, the pace of the campaign showed no signs of slowing down. Two top generals, Fang Fenghui and Zhang Yang, disappeared from public view as recently as last month, and a series of new high-level investigations have been announced.
What is Xi's goal?
The five-yearly congress in Beijing is expected to see the president remain as party chief and bring in a new leadership team, helping to entrench his already considerable power.
If things go to plan for President Xi, he should be able to get many of his loyalists into key positions. Since he took office a number of his allies have been promoted. Here are some of the biggest gainers.
But analysts say Mr Xi, along with anti-corruption chief Wang Qishan, a key ally, has used the clean-up campaign to help shape who China's new leaders will be.
The country's Communist Party has for decades ruled by consensus, but analysts say President Xi is rewriting party rules and concentrating power in his own hands.
Critics accuse him of encouraging a cult of personality. They point to the fact that most of the top officials who have been disciplined have been supporters of his opponents, or former presidents Jiang Zemin or Hu Jintao.
President Xi's supporters say the anti-corruption drive is needed to restore the ruling party's credibility as the president pursues his dream of a more prosperous and powerful China which will soon overtake the US as the world's largest economy.
Research and production by BBC News, BBC Monitoring, BBC Chinese and BBC Visual Journalism.
Democracy Rules (9 January 2013)
Democracy in China (30/09/14)
The five-yearly congress in Beijing is expected to see the president remain as party chief and bring in a new leadership team, helping to entrench his already considerable power.
If things go to plan for President Xi, he should be able to get many of his loyalists into key positions. Since he took office a number of his allies have been promoted. Here are some of the biggest gainers.
- Li Zhanshu was party chief in a county neighbouring Mr Xi's early in their careers. In 2015 he visited Moscow as Mr Xi's "special representative". Has played a leading role in maintaining strong relations with Russia.
- Chen Min'er is one of the "New Zhijiang Army", the group of now senior CPC figures who worked under Mr Xi when he was party secretary in Zhejiang. Chen replaced the disgraced Sun Zhengcai in Chongqing.
- Another of the so-called "New Zhijiang Army" is Cai Qi. Before being summoned to the capital his popular blog had more than 10m social media followers.
- Said to be President Xi's top foreign policy aide, Wang Huning has been labelled "China's Kissinger" by a leading South Korean newspaper. He also advised former presidents Hu and Jiang.
- President Xi described his key economic adviser Liu He as "very important to me" when introducing him to President Obama's National Security Adviser in 2013. Mr Liu has an MA in public administration from Harvard.
But analysts say Mr Xi, along with anti-corruption chief Wang Qishan, a key ally, has used the clean-up campaign to help shape who China's new leaders will be.
The country's Communist Party has for decades ruled by consensus, but analysts say President Xi is rewriting party rules and concentrating power in his own hands.
Critics accuse him of encouraging a cult of personality. They point to the fact that most of the top officials who have been disciplined have been supporters of his opponents, or former presidents Jiang Zemin or Hu Jintao.
President Xi's supporters say the anti-corruption drive is needed to restore the ruling party's credibility as the president pursues his dream of a more prosperous and powerful China which will soon overtake the US as the world's largest economy.
Research and production by BBC News, BBC Monitoring, BBC Chinese and BBC Visual Journalism.
Democracy Rules (9 January 2013)
Here's an interesting artcle which appeared in The Times newspaper recently - written by Ai
Weiwei - a well-known artist and campaigner for freedom of speech in China.
Now democracy is an unusual beast in China which can best be summed up as follows:
China has a population of 1.3 billion people - but democracy is reserved to members of the Chinese Communist Party which claims an impressive 80 million members.
Yet these 80 million members represent just over 6% of the population - so the vast majority of its people (94%) are completely disenfranchised - unless they all join the Communist Party, of course.
But think of the number of trees that would have to be cut down - just to issue all those new membership cards.
Every ten years the 80 million members of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) send 2,000 delegates to the CCP Party Congress - which is only held once a decade - and elects the party leadership for the next 10 years.
The Party Congress also elects a central committee comprising 25 or so leading party figures - which in turn elects a small kitchen cabinet of the most trusted and powerful politicians.
Yet almost all of this furious activity - which claims to be representative democracy - takes place behind closed doors and without any public debate or effective scrutiny.
So, I'm with Ai Weiwei - the next stage of China's growth and development - requires a different mindset from the one that has dragged much of the country out of terrible poverty.
Because representative democracy is not such a big deal - when it's both unrepresentative and non-participative - as far as the vast bulk of the Chinese people are concerned.
No wonder that some brave people in China - including journalists at the Southern Weekly newspaper in Guangdong - are beginning to take a stand by demanding more freedom of speech and that their country begins to face up to the need for change.
China’s growth cannot last without freedom
by Ai Weiwei
The suppression of individual rights and civil voices is incompatible with modern times
In China those in power are more afraid of the people they wield power over than ever before. The powerful try to avoid any confrontation, or even discussion, at all costs. This was apparent during the 18th Communist Party of China National Congress. To avoid flyers being distributed in public, taxi drivers were ordered to remove crank handles from car doors so that the windows would stay shut, and bus windows were sealed with screws. The irony is that by smothering individual rights and silencing opinion, China suffers. Its young people have no passion, imagination, or creativity. They show no ability to digest different perspectives or to even recognise that there are differences in viewpoint.
The new Politburo Standing Committee is a product of the system. The personalities and their faces are unfamiliar, their backgrounds barely known to the public. How can we talk about signs of change when we have no clues to understanding the thinking of China’s most senior government leaders? These leaders are detached from reality, and do not recognise what they should be doing or what the nation needs. Their promises are mere slogans.
The Communist Party possesses full control of the media, and the press is only a tool for propaganda and censorship. No meaningful discussions can take place over Chinese social media other than those about entertainment and gossip. During the recent congress, all discussions on the microblogging website Weibo were heavily monitored. Rigorous approval processes were introduced for posting comments, making it a time-consuming act.
On the Chinese internet any mention of my name, even negative criticism, was censored to avoid any public attention. Any image or comment made about me would be deleted immediately and anyone who posted them would risk having their internet accounts shut down. Access to blocked foreign websites was possible using technology such as virtual private networks (VPNs), but even these were severely attacked during the congress. Under such pressure, people turned away because of the potential risks of using the internet, as any show of personal opinion could easily lead to prison or enforced disappearance. They get scared and the discussions stop.
Even though China’s economic growth is bringing rapid changes to its society, it has not become any easier for individuals to participate in social matters. It is still forbidden to express social opinion, to start a non-governmental organisation or just to be a volunteer for social causes. There is no room for expressing different views, or introducing initiatives that run parallel to the Government’s policies or compensate for areas where the Government fails. Any attempt to participate in public affairs is considered a challenge to the Government’s legitimacy.
Over the past six decades or so, those who tried to exercise their rights commonly dealt with police harassment, enforced disappearances and incarcerations. These caused extreme hardships in the daily lives of those who dared to speak, as well as severe physical and mental damage. China has become a place where civil voices are silenced. Intellectuals, or any individual for that matter, cannot reflect on their feelings or ideas.
China’s growth has not benefited its citizens. On the contrary, its existing growth hinders the country’s ability to change. It is impossible to make any significant adjustments without changing the Government’s structure completely. Yet the Government lacks the creativity and independence to foster a stronger society. It is afraid that any change would interfere with growth, leading to social upheaval and disorder. This has become an excuse to crack down on private individual rights.
This approach renders the system incompatible with modern times. Our times are very different from the Cold War period. All nations are facing economic challenges and global competition. China cannot win without the free flow of information and civil participation. It will never become a modern society without taking up this challenge.
We are now living in difficult times and at a critical moment. Although there are no indications of improvement, we can only hope that the conditions will not continue to deteriorate. I am, however, always optimistic about the future. For the younger generation to meet the challenges in their lives, they have to be free individuals, able to take on the burden of responsibility, and involve themselves passionately in social matters.
SEED OF DISSENT
Ai Weiwei, aged 57, is an artist and outspoken critic of the Chinese Government and its suppression of free speech. He is best known in Britain for his installation Sunflower Seeds at Tate Modern in 2010. Last year he was detained by the Chinese authorities for 81 days that he called a living hell of interrogation and isolation. On release, he was told that he owed £1.5 million in taxes and fines.
Now democracy is an unusual beast in China which can best be summed up as follows:
China has a population of 1.3 billion people - but democracy is reserved to members of the Chinese Communist Party which claims an impressive 80 million members.
Yet these 80 million members represent just over 6% of the population - so the vast majority of its people (94%) are completely disenfranchised - unless they all join the Communist Party, of course.
But think of the number of trees that would have to be cut down - just to issue all those new membership cards.
Every ten years the 80 million members of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) send 2,000 delegates to the CCP Party Congress - which is only held once a decade - and elects the party leadership for the next 10 years.
The Party Congress also elects a central committee comprising 25 or so leading party figures - which in turn elects a small kitchen cabinet of the most trusted and powerful politicians.
Yet almost all of this furious activity - which claims to be representative democracy - takes place behind closed doors and without any public debate or effective scrutiny.
So, I'm with Ai Weiwei - the next stage of China's growth and development - requires a different mindset from the one that has dragged much of the country out of terrible poverty.
Because representative democracy is not such a big deal - when it's both unrepresentative and non-participative - as far as the vast bulk of the Chinese people are concerned.
No wonder that some brave people in China - including journalists at the Southern Weekly newspaper in Guangdong - are beginning to take a stand by demanding more freedom of speech and that their country begins to face up to the need for change.
China’s growth cannot last without freedom
by Ai Weiwei
The suppression of individual rights and civil voices is incompatible with modern times
In China those in power are more afraid of the people they wield power over than ever before. The powerful try to avoid any confrontation, or even discussion, at all costs. This was apparent during the 18th Communist Party of China National Congress. To avoid flyers being distributed in public, taxi drivers were ordered to remove crank handles from car doors so that the windows would stay shut, and bus windows were sealed with screws. The irony is that by smothering individual rights and silencing opinion, China suffers. Its young people have no passion, imagination, or creativity. They show no ability to digest different perspectives or to even recognise that there are differences in viewpoint.
The new Politburo Standing Committee is a product of the system. The personalities and their faces are unfamiliar, their backgrounds barely known to the public. How can we talk about signs of change when we have no clues to understanding the thinking of China’s most senior government leaders? These leaders are detached from reality, and do not recognise what they should be doing or what the nation needs. Their promises are mere slogans.
The Communist Party possesses full control of the media, and the press is only a tool for propaganda and censorship. No meaningful discussions can take place over Chinese social media other than those about entertainment and gossip. During the recent congress, all discussions on the microblogging website Weibo were heavily monitored. Rigorous approval processes were introduced for posting comments, making it a time-consuming act.
On the Chinese internet any mention of my name, even negative criticism, was censored to avoid any public attention. Any image or comment made about me would be deleted immediately and anyone who posted them would risk having their internet accounts shut down. Access to blocked foreign websites was possible using technology such as virtual private networks (VPNs), but even these were severely attacked during the congress. Under such pressure, people turned away because of the potential risks of using the internet, as any show of personal opinion could easily lead to prison or enforced disappearance. They get scared and the discussions stop.
Even though China’s economic growth is bringing rapid changes to its society, it has not become any easier for individuals to participate in social matters. It is still forbidden to express social opinion, to start a non-governmental organisation or just to be a volunteer for social causes. There is no room for expressing different views, or introducing initiatives that run parallel to the Government’s policies or compensate for areas where the Government fails. Any attempt to participate in public affairs is considered a challenge to the Government’s legitimacy.
Over the past six decades or so, those who tried to exercise their rights commonly dealt with police harassment, enforced disappearances and incarcerations. These caused extreme hardships in the daily lives of those who dared to speak, as well as severe physical and mental damage. China has become a place where civil voices are silenced. Intellectuals, or any individual for that matter, cannot reflect on their feelings or ideas.
China’s growth has not benefited its citizens. On the contrary, its existing growth hinders the country’s ability to change. It is impossible to make any significant adjustments without changing the Government’s structure completely. Yet the Government lacks the creativity and independence to foster a stronger society. It is afraid that any change would interfere with growth, leading to social upheaval and disorder. This has become an excuse to crack down on private individual rights.
This approach renders the system incompatible with modern times. Our times are very different from the Cold War period. All nations are facing economic challenges and global competition. China cannot win without the free flow of information and civil participation. It will never become a modern society without taking up this challenge.
We are now living in difficult times and at a critical moment. Although there are no indications of improvement, we can only hope that the conditions will not continue to deteriorate. I am, however, always optimistic about the future. For the younger generation to meet the challenges in their lives, they have to be free individuals, able to take on the burden of responsibility, and involve themselves passionately in social matters.
SEED OF DISSENT
Ai Weiwei, aged 57, is an artist and outspoken critic of the Chinese Government and its suppression of free speech. He is best known in Britain for his installation Sunflower Seeds at Tate Modern in 2010. Last year he was detained by the Chinese authorities for 81 days that he called a living hell of interrogation and isolation. On release, he was told that he owed £1.5 million in taxes and fines.
Democracy in China (30/09/14)
I read somewhere during the Scottish referendum campaign that government officials in China were talking great delight in the level of support for independence in the opinion polls, not because of their great love for democracy, but as payback for the long years of colonial rule by the British Empire.
Now the good thing about Scotland's independence referendum whether people voted Yes or No is that it was a magnificent exercise in people power, in self-determination, and everyone who took part deserves huge credit, even David Cameron and the Coalition Government at Westminster which agreed to put the issue to the test in the first place.
Compare events in Scotland with the scenes in Hong Kong over the weekend where the Chinese Government is trying to gerrymander the election of Hong Kong's next chief executive.
Seems like democracy is coming to Hong Kong whether the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) likes it or not, which would be a good thing if you ask me, since the CCP represents only 6% or so of China's 1.3 billion voters.
Hong Kong: Protesters defiant amid stand-off
Tens of thousands of pro-democracy protesters are blocking Hong Kong's streets, shutting down its business hub and ignoring appeals to leave.
The demonstrations have spread to other areas including a shopping district and a residential area.
Riot police withdrew on Monday after overnight clashes in which they used batons and fired volleys of tear gas to try to disperse the crowds.
China has warned other countries not to support the "illegal rallies".
Its foreign ministry said it opposed any interference in China's internal affairs.
Meanwhile the British government called for the right to protest to be protected.
"It is important for Hong Kong to preserve these rights and for Hong Kong people to exercise them within the law," the UK foreign office said in a statement.
Protesters - a mix of students and supporters of the Occupy Central pro-democracy movement - are angry at Beijing's plans to vet candidates for Hong Kong's 2017 leadership elections.
They want a free choice of candidates when they cast their ballots for the chief executive - something Beijing says is out of the question.
China editor Carrie Gracie asks workers in Hong Kong's financial industry if they believe the protests will harm the economy
Tens of thousands of pro-democracy protesters are blocking Hong Kong's streets, shutting down its business hub and ignoring appeals to leave.
The demonstrations have spread to other areas including a shopping district and a residential area.
Riot police withdrew on Monday after overnight clashes in which they used batons and fired volleys of tear gas to try to disperse the crowds.
China has warned other countries not to support the "illegal rallies".
Its foreign ministry said it opposed any interference in China's internal affairs.
Meanwhile the British government called for the right to protest to be protected.
"It is important for Hong Kong to preserve these rights and for Hong Kong people to exercise them within the law," the UK foreign office said in a statement.
Protesters - a mix of students and supporters of the Occupy Central pro-democracy movement - are angry at Beijing's plans to vet candidates for Hong Kong's 2017 leadership elections.
They want a free choice of candidates when they cast their ballots for the chief executive - something Beijing says is out of the question.
Sunday saw angry scenes and dozens of arrests on Hong Kong's streets as tens of thousands of protesters faced riot police in the heart of the city.
In a news conference on Monday, Cheung Tak-keung, assistant commissioner of police for operations, said police had used the "bare minimum force".
He said 41 people had been injured in the past three days, including police officers.
Some of the protesters remained camped out around the government complex overnight on Sunday, sleeping on the ground and some erecting barricades.
About 3,000 people have also blocked a major road across the bay in Mongkok, on the Kowloon peninsula, while a crowd of about 1,000 faced police in the busy shopping district of Causeway Bay, east of central Hong Kong.
Chief Executive CY Leung said the government was "resolute in opposing the unlawful occupation" by protesters'Sorrow over chaos'
Tensions escalated on Sunday when the broader Occupy Central protest movement threw its weight behind student-led protests, bringing forward a mass civil disobedience campaign due to start on Wednesday.
In a statement on Monday, the movement called on Mr Leung to step down, saying "only this will make it possible to re-launch the political reform process and create a space in which the crisis can be defused".
China, which stations a garrison of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) in Hong Kong, said it was confident the city's administration could handle the protests.
In a news conference on Monday, Cheung Tak-keung, assistant commissioner of police for operations, said police had used the "bare minimum force".
He said 41 people had been injured in the past three days, including police officers.
Some of the protesters remained camped out around the government complex overnight on Sunday, sleeping on the ground and some erecting barricades.
About 3,000 people have also blocked a major road across the bay in Mongkok, on the Kowloon peninsula, while a crowd of about 1,000 faced police in the busy shopping district of Causeway Bay, east of central Hong Kong.
Protesters remained on the streets as darkness fell on Monday, with many still camped outside government buildings
About 3,000 protesters blocked a major road across the bay in Mongkok, on the Kowloon peninsula
Some protesters covered their faces with plastic wrap and goggles as an anti-tear-gas measure
Earlier, police clashed with protesters attempting to block roads in central Hong Kong
The Hong Kong government has urged protesters to stay calm and leave peacefully.
But schools in three districts have been closed and the city remains heavily disrupted, with several major thoroughfares blocked.
One man said protesters were growing more confident. "Police don't have enough officers to close down the districts where there are protests," Ivan Yeung, 27, told AFP news agency.
Overnight, Hong Kong's chief executive reassured the public that rumours the Chinese army might intervene were untrue.
"I hope the public will keep calm. Don't be misled by the rumours," CY Leung said.
In other developments:
The Hong Kong government has urged protesters to stay calm and leave peacefully.
But schools in three districts have been closed and the city remains heavily disrupted, with several major thoroughfares blocked.
One man said protesters were growing more confident. "Police don't have enough officers to close down the districts where there are protests," Ivan Yeung, 27, told AFP news agency.
Overnight, Hong Kong's chief executive reassured the public that rumours the Chinese army might intervene were untrue.
"I hope the public will keep calm. Don't be misled by the rumours," CY Leung said.
In other developments:
- Police said they used tear gas 87 times in clashes with protesters on Sunday
- More than 200 bus routes have been cancelled or diverted; some subway exits in protest areas have been blocked
- Several banks have suspended operations in affected areas
- Police said they arrested 78 people on Sunday, after 70 arrests on Saturday.
- In the Taiwanese capital, Taipei, a group of protesters gathered outside the Hong Kong cultural office in a show of support
- President Ma Ying-jeou said Taiwan was closely watching the situation in Hong Kong
- In mainland China, reports say Instagram has been blocked, it is thought due to the protests
Chief Executive CY Leung said the government was "resolute in opposing the unlawful occupation" by protesters'Sorrow over chaos'
Tensions escalated on Sunday when the broader Occupy Central protest movement threw its weight behind student-led protests, bringing forward a mass civil disobedience campaign due to start on Wednesday.
In a statement on Monday, the movement called on Mr Leung to step down, saying "only this will make it possible to re-launch the political reform process and create a space in which the crisis can be defused".
China, which stations a garrison of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) in Hong Kong, said it was confident the city's administration could handle the protests.
Celia Hatton: The view from Beijing
China's leaders must be sitting uncomfortably in Beijing.
As long as the protests continue, there is a chance they will spread to the mainland, where many are unhappy with one-party rule. The Chinese government is taking clear steps to limit information about events in Hong Kong by censoring internet search terms and forums discussions.
But if the protesters hold their ground, how far will Beijing allow events to spiral before getting directly involved?
The sight of Chinese troops confronting Hong Kong protesters, particularly students, would be a disaster for Beijing, leading to an international outcry. Beijing could revisit the dark days following its violent response to 1989's Tiananmen protests.
So, for now, Chinese leaders face an unusual set of political constraints. The Communist Party is unwilling to cede political control to the people of Hong Kong by refusing to allow direct elections in 2017. As a result, the party is putting its faith in the abilities of the Hong Kong police to deal with the fall-out from that decision.
China's leaders must be sitting uncomfortably in Beijing.
As long as the protests continue, there is a chance they will spread to the mainland, where many are unhappy with one-party rule. The Chinese government is taking clear steps to limit information about events in Hong Kong by censoring internet search terms and forums discussions.
But if the protesters hold their ground, how far will Beijing allow events to spiral before getting directly involved?
The sight of Chinese troops confronting Hong Kong protesters, particularly students, would be a disaster for Beijing, leading to an international outcry. Beijing could revisit the dark days following its violent response to 1989's Tiananmen protests.
So, for now, Chinese leaders face an unusual set of political constraints. The Communist Party is unwilling to cede political control to the people of Hong Kong by refusing to allow direct elections in 2017. As a result, the party is putting its faith in the abilities of the Hong Kong police to deal with the fall-out from that decision.
A spokesman for China's Hong Kong and Macau affairs office said that Beijing firmly opposed "all illegal activities that could undermine rule of law and jeopardise 'social tranquillity'", Xinhua news agency reports.
Mainland newspapers have blamed "radical opposition forces" for stirring up trouble.
Analysts say Communist Party leaders in Beijing are worried that calls for democracy could spread to cities on the mainland.
Britain handed Hong Kong back to China in 1997 under a "one country, two systems" formula that guarantees liberties not seen on the mainland, including freedom of speech and the right to protest.
Mainland newspapers have blamed "radical opposition forces" for stirring up trouble.
Analysts say Communist Party leaders in Beijing are worried that calls for democracy could spread to cities on the mainland.
Britain handed Hong Kong back to China in 1997 under a "one country, two systems" formula that guarantees liberties not seen on the mainland, including freedom of speech and the right to protest.
Hong Kong democracy timeline
- 1997: Hong Kong, a former British colony, is handed back to China under an 1984 agreement giving it "a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign and defence affairs" for 50 years
- 2004: China rules that its approval must be sought for changes to Hong Kong's election laws
- June-July 2014: Pro-democracy activists hold an unofficial referendum on political reform and a large rally. This is followed by protests by pro-Beijing activists
- 31 August 2014: China says it will allow direct elections in 2017, but voters will only be able to choose from a list of pre-approved candidates. Activists stage protests
- 22 September 2014: Student groups launch a week-long boycott of classes in protest
- 2017: Direct elections for chief executive due to take place
- 2047: Expiry of current agreements
